*Schema
*Making Connections
Thinking Strategies for Readers
Researchers who have studied the thinking processes of proficient readers conclude that if teachers taught the following strategies instead of much of the traditional skills-based reading curriculum, students who use the strategies would be better equipped to deal with a variety of texts independently (Keene and Zimmerman, 1997). These strategies are useful for composing meaning at both a text and word level.
Monitoring for Meaning
at a text level, readers . . .
■ pause to reflect on their growing understandings
■ recognize when they understand the text, and when they don’t
■ identify when and why the meaning of the text is unclear
■ identify the ways in which a text becomes gradually more understandable by reading past an unclear portion and by rereading text
■ decide if clarifying a particular confusion is critical to overall understanding
■ explore a variety of means to remedy confusion
■ consider, and sometimes adjust, their purpose for reading
■ check, evaluate and make revisions to their evolving interpretation(s) of text
at a word level, readers . . .
■ identify confusing words
■ employ a range of options for reestablishing meaningful reading (e.g., rereading, reading on, using words around the unknown word, using letters and sounds, using a meaningful substitution)
Activating, Utilizing and Building Background Knowledge (Schema)
at a text level, readers . . .
■ activate relevant, prior knowledge before, during and after reading
■ build knowledge by deliberately assimilating new learning with their related prior knowledge
■ clarify new learning by deleting inaccurate schema
■ relate texts to their world knowledge, to other texts and to their personal experiences
■ activate their knowledge of authors, genre, and text structure to enhance understanding
■ recognize when prior knowledge is inadequate and take steps to build knowledge necessary to understand
at a word level, readers . . .
■ apply what they know about sounds-letter relationships and word parts to make sense of unknown words
Asking Questions
at a text-level, readers . . .
■ generate questions before, during and after reading about the text’s content, structure and language
■ ask questions for different purposes, including clarifying their own developing understandings, making predictions, and wondering about the choices the author made when composing
■ realize that one question may lead to others
■ pursue answers to questions
■ consider rhetorical questions inspired by the text
■ distinguish between questions that lead to essential/deeper understandings and “just curious” types of questions
■ allow self-generated questions to propel them through text
■ contemplate questions posed by others as inspiration for new questions
at a word level, readers . . .
■ pose self-monitoring questions to help them understand unknown/unfamiliar words (e.g., “What would make good sense?”, “What would sound like language?”, “What would sound right and match the letters?”, “Is this a word I want to use as a writer? If so, how am I going to remember it?”)
Drawing Inferences
at a text level, readers . . .
■ draw conclusions about their reading by connecting the text with their schema
■ make, confirm, and/or revise reasonable predictions
■ know when and how to infer answers to unanswered questions
■ form unique interpretations to deepen and personalize reading experiences
■ extend their comprehension beyond literal understandings of the printed page
■ make judgments and create generalizations about what they read
■ create a sense of expectation as they read
at the word level, readers . . .
■ use context clues and their knowledge of language to predict the pronunciation and meaning of unknown/unfamiliar words
Determining Importance
at a text level, readers . . .
■ identify key ideas, themes and elements as they read
■ distinguish between important and unimportant information using their own purpose(s), as well as the text structures and word cues the author provides
■ use text structures and text features to help decide what is essential and what is extraneous
■ use their knowledge of important and relevant parts of text to prioritize what they commit to long-term memory and what they retell and/or summarize for others
■ consider the author’s bias/point of view
■ use the filter of essential/other to clarify usefulness when applying other cognitive strategies to their reading
at a word level, readers . . .
■ determine which words are essential to the meaning of the text
■ know when choosing to skip words/phrases of text will or will not impact their overall understanding
■ make decisions about when unknown/unclear words need clarification immediately and accurately, and when substitutions can be used to maintain meaning and fluency
Creating Sensory Images
at a text level, readers . . .
■ immerse themselves in rich detail as they read
■ create images connected to the senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell to enhance and personalize understandings
■ attend to “heart” images – feelings evoked while reading
■ revise their images to incorporate new information and new ideas revealed in the text
■ adapt their images in response to the images shared by other readers
at a word level, readers . . .
■ use visual, auditory and kinesthetic modes when learning how words work
■ use what they know about a word’s appearance (e.g., length, spacing above and below the line) to understand unknown words
■ ask themselves “Does that look right?” and “Does that sound right?” whencross-checking unknown words
Synthesizing Information
at a text level, readers . . .
■ continually monitor overall meaning, important concepts and themes while reading
■ recognize ways in which text elements fit together to create larger meaning
■ create new and personal meaning
■ develop holistic and/or thematic statements which encapsulate the overall meaning of the text
■ capitalize on opportunities to share, recommend and criticize books
■ attend to the evolution of their thoughts across time while reading a text, and while reading many texts
at a word level, readers . . .
■ select specific vocabulary from the text(s) to include in their synthesis because they know that specific language is highly meaning-laden
■ know when certain vocabulary is critical to the text’s overall meaning, and therefore, must be understood if comprehension is to be achieved
Problem Solving
at a text level, readers . . .
■ know that once meaning has broken down, that any of the other cognitive behaviors can be employed to repair understanding
■ use information from the three deep surface structure systems to repair text meaning
at a word level, readers . . .
■ use information from the three surface structure systems to solve word issues
■ select from a wide range of word strategies (e.g., skip and read on, reread, use context clues, use the letters and sounds, speak to a peer reader) to help make sense of unknown words
■ develop reading fluency
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